#101 It cost P50,000 at the end of each year to maintain

It cost P50,000 at the end of each year to maintain - Math

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1. It cost P50,000 at the end of each year to maintain a section of Kennon road in Baguio city. if money is worth 10%, how much would pay to spend immediately to reduce the annual cost to P10,000?
2. A man invests P10,000 now for the college education for his 2-year old son. If the fund earns 14% effective, how much will the son get each year starting from his 18th to the 22nd birthday?
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#100 A more efficient heating system adds $7.500 to the cost

A more efficient heating system adds $7.500 to the cost - Civil Engineering

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A more efficient heating system adds $7.500 to the cost of your project. Adding this system will save $1200 per year. If the discount rate is 8%, about how long will it take to pay back the initial investment?
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#99 In the lewis electron Dot Structure for

In the lewis electron Dot Structure for - Inorganic Chemistry

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11. In the lewis electron Dot Structure for AIBr3, how many dots (electrons) should be shown around each Br?
12. In the lewis electron Dot Structure for AIBr3, what charge should be shown on AI?
13. In the lewis electron Dot Structure AIBr3, what charge should be shown on each Br?
14. In the lewis electron Dot Structure for AIBr3, what charge should be shown on each Br?
15. In the lewis electron Dot Structure for Li2O, how many dots (electron) should be shown around the O?
16. In the lewis electron Dot structure for Li2O, what charge should be shown on each Li?
17. In the lewis electron Dot structure for Li2O, what charge should be shown on the O?
18. In the lewis electron Dot structure for CaO, how many dots (electrons) should be shown around the Ca?

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#98 Calculate pH 1.0 x 10-9 M Solution of HNO3

Calculate pH 1.0 x 10^-9 M Solution of HNO₃ - Inorganic Chemistry

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Calculate pH 1.0 x 10^-9 M Solution of HNO₃
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#97 What is the molarity of a 32.0% w/v NaCl solution?

What is the molarity of a 32.0% w/v NaCl solution? - Inorganic Chemistry

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What is the molarity of a 32.0% w/v NaCl solution?
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#96 Calculate the pH of a solution that is 2.00

Calculate the pH of a solution that is 2.00 - Inorganic Chemistry

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Calculate the pH of a solution that is 2.00 M HF, 1.00 M NaOH and 0.690 M NaF Ka of HF=6.8 x 10^-4
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When HF reacts with NaOH to give 1.00 M NaF and 0.690M NaF is there so the total value of NaF is 1.690.

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Localized Chemical Bonding - Covalency of Carbon

(Localized Chemical Bonding) Covalency of Carbon, Orbital (Wave Mechanical) Concept of Bonding, Atomic Orbitals - Structure and Bonding

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Covalency of Carbon

Carbon has four valency electrons and usually, it acquires the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas neon by sharing its electrons with other atoms. Thus, carbon is tetracovalent (quadrivalent). Lewis and Couper structures of some covalent carbon compounds are given below :

Carbon atoms have the unique ability to join together to form very long chains and large rings, which can have branches and cross-links. This unique property of carbon is known as catenation, which is responsible for the wide variety and a large number of carbon compounds. Since catenation is not possible to such an extent for atoms of any other element, inorganic compounds are far less in number.
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Orbital (Wave Mechanical) Concept of Bonding

The electronic theory of bonding could not answer fundamental questions concerning, e.g., the bond energy, and geometry and shapes of molecules. The emergence of quantum (wave) mechanics ultimately led to the development of two theories of bonding, viz., the valence bond (VB) theory and the molecular orbital (MO) theory to explain the nature of covalent bonds. Both of these theories involve atomic orbitals (AO's), thus before intelligently discussing them, we must consider the shapes and orientations of atomic orbitals.
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Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital is defined as the definite region in three-dimensional space around a nucleus where there is a high probability of finding an electron of specific energy. In organic chemistry, we are mainly concerned with sand p-orbitals, hence the shapes and orientations of these orbitals are described below:
An s orbital has a spherical shape. The atomic nucleus in the center of\\S orbital and the orbital is spherically symmetrical about the nucleus.

A p atomic orbital consists of two equal lobes forming a dumb-bell shape. The two lobes do not touch each other at the nucleus, thus the probability of finding electrons in this region is zero and it is called the nodal plane. There are three p orbitals of equal energy. They are directed perpendicular to each other just as Cartesian co-ordinates and are designated as P_x, P_y, and P_z corresponding to' their axes of orientation.

Solid State

If the forces of attraction between molecules are much greater than the thermal energy, the positions of the molecules remain fixed and we have matter in the solid-state. The molecules in the solid-state, therefore, do not possess any translational energy but have only vibrational energy since they can vibrate about their mean positions. Extremely large forces of attraction exist amongst them. That is way solids differ markedly from liquids and gases in respect of size, shape volume. Solids, in general, have definite size, shape, and volume.:

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Introduction - Gaseous State, Liquid State, Solid State

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Introduction

In order to experimentally determine the properties of substances, we deal with the aggregates of molecules as they occur in nature. It is the aggregations of molecules which come within the scope of human experience that constitute what is known as matter. The various kinds of substances that make up matter can be divided roughly into three categories, namely gases, liquids, and solids. These are called the three states of matter. These states can be considered to arise as a result of competition between two opposing molecular forces, namely, the forces of attraction which tend to hold the molecules together, and the disruptive forces dut to the thermal energy of molecules.
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Gaseous State

If the thermal energy is much greater than the forces of attraction, then we have matter in its gaseous state. Molecules in the gaseous state move with very large speeds and the forces of attraction amongst them are not sufficient to bind the molecules at one place, with the result that the molecules move partially independent of one another. Because of this feature, gases are characterized by marked sensitivity of volume change with a change in temperature and pressure. There exists no boundary surface and, therefore, gases than to fill completely any available space, resulting in no fixed volume to the gaseous state.
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Liquid State

If the forces of attraction are greater than the thermal energy, we have matter in the liquid state. Molecules in the liquid state to have kinetic energy but they cannot go very far away because of the larger forces of attraction amongst them. Due to this feature, liquids have a definite volume, but no definite shape. They take the shape of the vessel in which they are placed. In general, liquids are denser and less compressible than gases.

Solid State

If the forces of attraction between molecules are much greater than the thermal energy, the positions of the molecules remain fixed and we have matter in the solid-state. The molecules in the solid-state, therefore, do not possess any translational energy but have only vibrational energy since they can vibrate about their mean positions. Extremely large forces of attraction exist amongst them. That is way solids differ markedly from liquids and gases in respect of size, shape volume. Solids, in general, have definite size, shape, and volume.

Comments on the Gaseous System

Of all the three states of molecular aggregation, only the gaseous state allows a comparatively simple quantitative description. We are generally concerned with the relations among four properties, namely, mass, pressure, volume, and temperature. A system is in a definite state (or condition) when all the properties of the system have definite values. It is not necessary to specify each and every property of the matter as these are interrelated. The relationship which connects the above four variables is known as the equation of state of the system. For gases, only three of these must be specified to describe the state, the fourth automatically has a fixed value and can be calculated from the equation of state established from the experimental behavior of the system.
:

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#95 Match the following aqueous solutions

Match the following aqueous solutions with the appropriate letter from the column on the right. - Physical Chemistry

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Match the following aqueous solutions with the appropriate letter from the column on the right.

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Covalent Bonding - The Electronic Theory

(Localized Chemical Bonding) Covalent Bonding, The Electronic Theory - Structure and Bonding

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Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds. This definition includes compounds like CO, C02, CS2, carbonates, cyanates, cyanides, etc. but they are usually described in textbooks of inorganic chemistry due to their greater resemblance with inorganic compounds. Organic chemistry is a very systematic subject which is based on the structures of molecules and their reactivity. The presence of covalent bonds is the characteristic of organic (carbon) compounds. This implies that most of the organic compounds are covalent compounds. Thus, the covalent bond is of chief importance in the study of organic chemistry.
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Covalent Bonding

The Electronic Theory: It was based on the electronic structure of atoms. In 1916, G.N. Lewis (of the University of California) was the first to suggest that chemical combinations of atoms can take place through the covalent bond formation. A covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons, each atom contributing one or more electrons to form the shared pair or pairs. In this way, each of the bonded atoms attains the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas. The two bonded atoms are held together by a shared pair or pairs of electrons, i.e., covalent bond(s). The covalent bond formed by sharing of one electron pair is called a single bond (as in hydrogen and chlorine molecules), whereas that formed by sharing of two-electron pairs (as in oxygen molecule) and three electron pairs (as in nitrogen molecule) are called double and triple bonds, respectively. Double and triple bonds are collectively called multiple bonds. The structures in which the shared electron pair(s), as well as all the unshared valency electrons (non-bonding electrons) of bonded atoms, are shown by dots were first used by Lewis and they are known as Lewis structures. In Lewis structures, the symbol of the atom represents kernel (nucleus + electrons except for valency electrons) but not the only the nucleus. The electrons of the outermost shell of an atom are called valency (valence) electrons.

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(In HCI, hydrogen has two electrons in its valence shell and chlorine has eight electrons in its valence shell)

When a dash (-) is used in place of dots corresponding to each shared pair of electrons and the dots corresponding to all the nonbonding electrons are omitted, the structures of molecules are known as Couper structures (structural formulae) because he proposed such structures. For example, the Couper structures of covalent compounds like H₂, 0_2, and N₂ are depicted as follows :

The omission of the unshared valency electrons is the limitation of Couper structures. A widely used scheme for representing the structure of molecules uses Couper structures indicating all the unshared valency electrons by dots, such structures are also called as Lewis structures, for example :

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#94 Suppose the field inside a large piece of dielectric

Suppose the field inside a large piece of dielectric - physics

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Suppose the field inside a large piece of the dielectric is E0, so that the electric displacement is

(a) Now a small spherical cavity (Fig. 4.19a) is hollowed out of the material. Find the field at the center of the cavity in terms of E₀ and P. Also find the displacement at the center of the cavity in terms of D₀ and P. Assume the polarization is âfrozen in,â so it doesnât change when the cavity is excavated.
(b) Do the same for a long needle-shaped cavity running parallel to P (Fig. 4.19b).
(c) Do the same for a thin wafer-shaped cavity perpendicular to P (Fig. 4.19c). Assume the cavities are small enough that P, E₀, and D₀are essentially uniform. [Hint: Carving out a cavity is the same as superimposing an object of the same shape but opposite polarization.]
Figure 4.19
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Electric displacement is a topic discussed in electromagnetism that measures the response of dielectric insulating materials that applies to the electric field. A conducting material remains neutral before applying an electric field on it. It means there is no movement in charge of particles inside the material.
When electric field is applied to the material, the free charges start responding to the force of field. The whole material becomes polarized as because the positive charges shift towards the direction of the applied field (electric) and the negative charges move in the opposite direction of the electric field. Thus, polarization P takes place within the material.